Written by Asha Gardade, BA.LLB. (Hons.), Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University, Navi Mumbai, Panvel
[ What you leave behind is not what is engraved in stone monuments , but what is woven into the lives of others. – By PERICLES ]
1.INTRODUCTION –
The Great Indus Valley Civilization, Also known as The Harappan Civilization. This Civilization is divided in three phases – 1.Early Phase , 2.Mature Phase and , 3.Late Phase. [Early Phase – 6000 BCE to 2600 BCE , Mature Phase – 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE , Late Phase – 1900 BCE to 1300 BCE ]. The time span of The Great Indus Valley Civilization ranges from 6000 BCE to 1300 BCE. The Early Phase of this Civilization is considered to be the most formative Phase , The Mature Phase is considered to be the most prosperous and urban Phase and the decline of this Civilization started from 1900 BCE that is from The Late Phase.
The Indus Valley Civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat and, Western Uttar Pradesh , extended from Sutkagendor (in Balochistan , Pakistan) in the West to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East and from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South.
The Indus Valley Civilization flourished near the banks of river Indus in the Sindh , Also known as The Harappan Civilization as because The Civilization was first identified in 1921 at Harappa in the Punjab region , then in 1922 at Mohenjodaro near the Sindh river.
The excavation of this Civilization by the archaeologists happened and started years ago and the results of their Great Work is commendable. The Indus Valley Civilization was the home to other Civilizations like – EGYPT, MESOPOTAMIA, CHINA, etc.
The five major , prosperous cities identified during the excavation were – Rakhigarhi , Harappa , Mohenjodaro , Dholavira , Lothal , Ganweriwala.
The Indus Valley Civilization was the Greatest Civilization in the World’s History and it introduced lot many customs , cultures to us.
2.BEGINNING –
The word – “culture” used here signifies a group of objects, distinctive in style, usually found together within a specific geographical area and period of time.
The excavators found out different cultures prior to the Mature Harappan regions. These were – pottery , evidence of pastoralism , agriculture , crafts , farming communities , bricks(baked and unbaked) etc. As we talk about the settlement, there were relatively small buildings and no large buildings. The Mature Phase of this Civilization is considered as The Prosperous Phase because The Civilization saw lot many development in this Phase.
Charles Masson was the first to visit Harappa.
So far , around 2000 sites of The Harappan Civilization have been discovered and most of them are located near the banks of river Indus and Saraswati river basins.
3.SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES –
Subsistence Strategies of The Harappan Civilization included – AGRICULTURE, HUNTING, GATGERING, PASTORALISM and DISTRIBUTION. People of the Harappan civilization were dependent on several plants and animals , upon fish and agriculture for food.
The excavation reports show that they grew crops as grains like wheat , barley , chickpea etc were found at Harappan Sites. Millets were found at Gujarat.
They used unique techniques for agriculture evident from the terracotta bull, plough etc found at different sites like Cholistan , Banawali. The Archaeologists even discovered a ploughed field at Kalibangan.
People of The Harappan Civilization were also dependent on animals evident from the bones of animals and fish like – buffalo, goat, gharial, fowl etc.
Archaeo-zoologists discovered that many of these animals were domesticated by the people of The Harappan Civilization.
Thus , We can say that people of The Harappan Civilization were great and had their own Strategies for Survival.
4.SOCIAL DIFFERENCES : THEN AND NOW –
Study of different cultures and artefacts by the archaeologists discovered the social differences that existed among the people of The Harappan Civilization.
The artefacts were divided as –
1. Utilitarian
2. Luxury
3. Burial
1. Utilitarian – This category included all the artefacts or the objects that were made of stone or clay, like – querns, pottery, needles, rubbers etc. Utilitarian generally included those items that were distributed throughout the settlement.
2. Luxury – This category included all the artefacts or the objects that were rare and were made from very valuable materials , like – hoards , little pots for perfume etc. These objects were found at the large settlements like Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
3. Burial – The burial system of the Harappan Civilization showed us the economic and the social differences . More than 200 bodies were dug out during the excavation process. The burial system was practiced by laying down the dead bodies on pits , sometimes oval or sometimes rectangular pits and sometimes the dead bodies were kept inside the coffin box , was evident by the stains left. People who were royal were buried with precious things like jewelleries, great pottery and ornaments.
People of Harappan Civilization somehow didn’t believe in burying precious things with dead bodies .
Social differences in morbidity and mortality existed and do exists . It is not something new for us , People practiced this before and even now in 21st Century , where we have education, awareness, The Constitution but somehow we are unable to remove this from our society.
5. THE TWO GREAT CITIES : MOHENJODARO AND HARAPPA –
Mohenjodaro : A planned urban centre –
The settlement of Mohenjodaro was divided as –
1. The Lower Town
2. The Citadel
Mohenjodaro was a planned , prosperous and an urban centre. The settlements or buildings of Mohenjodaro were arranged on a grid plan. Buildings were made of wooden superstructure, baked bricks, sun-dried bricks, mud-bricks etc. The settlement was having a great drainage system. And, it was later discovered by the archaeologists that Mohenjodaro was extended over about 300 hectares. There were around 40,000 people living in Mohenjodaro according to the archaeologists.
Mohenjodaro was discovered by the archaeologist – R.D. Banerjee in the year 1922. He discovered a fact about Mohenjodaro that it was flourished near the banks of a river but with the passage of time, river shifted its pathway.
It has been discovered by the archaeologists that the drainage system at Mohenjodaro [4,500] is still working properly after it faced a massive flood in Pakistan. Mohenjodaro had a flat-based drains that were made of baked bricks, the masonry was made so nicely that barely any seepage could have occurred. The drains were mostly covered and were made underground. The flow of water happened through these well defined channels.
It even had a great domestic planned architecture, buildings were made in such a manner that flood could not harm them , fortified by great walls. Each house had a well or more than one well. Around 700 wells were discovered by the archaeologists. Rich people had double-storey homes with 5-7 rooms and poor or middle class people had single-storey homes with 3-4 rooms. The houses were made in such a way that outsider could not see anything that was going inside the house. Wells were made for the outsiders, if thirsty then he/she could use the wells for water. Each house had its own drainage system and there was no window on the walls of ground level of the house. The courtyard of the house was the main place for all the works like – cooking , weaving.
1. The Lower Town – The Lower Town was bigger in size but Lower in level. It was bigger than The Citadel and it was the residential area for the people of Mohenjodaro. There were buildings and buildings providing public facility. The Lower Town was walled and ffortified.
2. The Citadel – The Citadel was made at a raised platform. Public buildings like The Great Bath were built in Citadel.
The Great Bath was one of the important structures discovered by the archaeologists. It was 55 metres long and 35 metres wide. It was made in such a manner that the water tank was watertight. Baked bricks were used , along with providing two ways for the people to come inside and to go outside, rooms were made to change the clothes and even 8 bathrooms. The Great Bath was specially used for public function or something that had a very great importance.
Harappa –
Harappa was discovered in 1921 by the archaeologist – Dayaram Sahni. The excavation took place under the guidance of two great people – Sir John Marshal and Colonel Meke. Harappa was the first site to be discovered. The remains of Harappa were also discovered and found in other cities and settlements like – Mohenjodaro, Ropar etc.
At present time, Harappa is situated in Pakistan. Like other settlements, it was one of the largest and well planned. Had a great drainage system and buildings were made according to grid system.
6. OTHER FEATURES OF THE CIVILIZATION –
Materials from the subcontinent or beyond –
Trade practice is not something that is new for us , trade practice happened in our ancient Civilizations as well. Things were imported from different places and even exported to different places , sometimes internally and sometimes beyond the country .
Eg – Lothal , the source of carnelian , Rajasthan – famous for metal and steatite , copper , South India for gold etc. Archaeologists even found out that things were imported from distinct lands like copper was imported from Oman , a big black jar that was from Harappa was found in one the Omani sites, archaeologists discovered that both Oman and Harappa had same origins or common origins. Even Meluhha or Mesopotamia contains traces of nickel. Harappan Sites practiced trade with Bahrain , Meluhha etc. , that is even evident by the texts that mention so.
Craft Production –
Craft Production of The Harappan Civilization tells and shows how people were engaged in different works and how skilled they were. This tells us that hoe stone is important for craft works , many of the Harappan objects were made out from stone , People were having a great knowledge in making objects and engraving metals .
Beads were made with different stones , using precious stones like carnelian , etc . Shells were used for making accessories. Beads from Chanhudaro and Lothal were taken to large settlements like Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
Mohenjodaro and Harappa were the specialised cities. Evidences of beads , shells , leftover wastes etc were found from both the small and the large settlements of The Harappan Civilization.
Chanhudaro was considered to be the Centre of Craft Production. Many things were exported from that place and evidences regarding the Craft Production was mostly discovered in Chanhudaro. People were divided evenly according to their skills and abilities, and thus it shows the division of labour.
Seals , Scripts and Weights –
There were different types of seals used in The Harappan Civilization that conveyed the identity or the address of the sender. Seals were even helpful for those people who were not able to read and write as , they used to get things by different signs made on the seals. Seals usually had the photos of animals or plants , like bull etc.
The Harappan Scripts are till date undeciphered , there were around 375 to 400 signs. There were short and long both types of inscription. The longest inscription had 26 signs. Things were written from right to left. There were lot many objects , jars or pots on which some or the another things were written and were discovered by our archaeologists. This shows that there were literate people who all knew how to read and write.
Exchange of goods and services happened through Weights, Weights were binary in number – 1,2,4,8,16 and 32. Made from chert [stone] with nothing written on it. Metal pans were also discovered.
7. ANCIENT AUTHORITY –
The matter of ancient authority is till date under speculation. Different Things are estimated by the archaeologists like – behind the planned cities , great drainage system , granaries , Citadel , seals , Indicate the presence of a centralized authority.
Some says that there were different Kings and Rulers at different places for the better functioning.
Some says that there was not even a single King or Ruler , and people enjoyed their own authority.
The Great Buildings and The Large Buildings of Mohenjodaro were labelled as Palaces . There was a sculpture discovered by the archaeologists named as – “Priest-King” in the Harappan Site and the Priest-King was found parallel with the history of Mohenjodaro. The sculpture of priest-king was made from steatite and was a male figure that was discovered after 1925.
8. END OF THE CIVILIZATION –
There is no such actual reason behind the end of The Indus Valley Civilization. The Civilization declined around 1800 BCE. The factors that are expected to be the actual reason(s) behind the decline or end are :-
The invasion of Aryans [European tribe] in the Indus Valley Civilization.
Climate Changes.
The Rivers like – Indus , Saraswati started shifting and it led people to migrate.
Massive Flood.
Eastward moving Monsoons.
Disrupted River System.
By 1700 BCE most of the Harappan cities and sites were abandoned.
9. DISCOVERY OF THE CIVILIZATION –
Harappa site was first briefly excavated by Sir Alexander Cunningham in 1872-73 and later in the year 1921 , Dayaram Sahni discovered Harappa and started the excavation.
Alexander Cunningham – father of the archaeology was the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India. He used to read all the Chinese and Buddhist Scripts, inscriptions left by them while they came to travel in order to discover the ancient settlements. He got to know about the Harappan Civilization by the 19th Century but he didn’t understand how old these were. He was unable to place the findings with the correct time frame. He thought that the indian history began with its first city in the Ganga Valley. And in this way he missed the significance of the first city or site – Harappa.
After the discovery by Dayaram Sahni in 1921 , many more archaeologists came up with their discoveries , John Marshall was the Director-General that time , the first professional archaeologist to work in India, without any further delay he introduced everyone with the discovery of Harappa and later , the excavation of Harappa was started.
R.E.M Wheeler , the Founder of the Institute of Archaeology , London took over the post of the Director-General of the ASI in 1944 came up with the suggestion of digging by following the statigraphy rather than digging mechanically along uniform horizontal line, he even undertook excavation which confirmed fortifications on both settlements.
10. PROBLEMS OF PIECING TOGETHER –
Historians and the Archaeologists faced the problems of piecing together the past.
They used organic materials like cloth , wood , leather etc that decomposes over time specially in tropical regions. Things that survived were – stone , burnt clay , metal , bone etc.
It was a very challenging task for the Historians and the Archaeologists. There were several factors that acted as hindrance(s) like – incomplete records, biased reports by the natives or by the archaeologists, passage of time etc.
They used artefacts , oral histories by the natives , Scripts , inscriptions , documents etc to reconstruct the past. Oral histories were not true every time because people conveyed the history according to their mindset and perception.
Archaeologists classified finds on the basis of – Function , Material , Use.
They were fully dependent upon the evidences for further investigation and search / research. There were several things discovered by them but it was really very hard and difficult for them to interpret. They used to discover several unfamiliar structures like – terracotta sculptures, proto-shiva, figurines of women wearing jewelleries etc. In some or the another way it Indicated religious matter or practices that prevailed among the people.
At last we can say that problems faced by the archaeologists and Historians were because of – lack of complete information, cultural bias, multiple interpretation, missing context, lack of modern scientific techniques etc.
11. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ANCIENT CULTURE, CUSTOM, SCRIPT, BELIEF IN TODAY’S WORLD –
There is a great significance of ancient culture , custom , ritual , script , belief in today’s world.
Through Customs, individuals express their belonging to a social group and reinforce the group’s identity and continuity. Several customs and their practices led to the formation of customary laws for the society and several groups. Customs establishes social harmony and unity within a group and among people. If a law goes against an established social custom, the law may be difficult to uphold. Customs even acted as a Source of Law – A custom, to be valid, must be observed continuously for a very long time without any interruption and a practice must be supported not only for a very long time, but it must also be supported by the opinion of the general public and morality.
Ancient Culture helped us by providing several elements like valuable lessons, ethics, evolution of human and behavior etc . It acts like a shed . Ancient India saw the birth of Jainism , Buddhism , Hinduism , Sufism etc., these cultures and religions intermingled and interacted. India is rich in culture, it differs from place to place, India’s great culture emerged from its historical traditions. It overall tells us what we are and how we are and from where we have come.
Ancient Scripts are one of the evidences used by the archaeologists in order to get to know about the society. It tells us about the ancient time , ancient practices and how people lived and thought . It provides the modern world with its history. Scripts in the ancient time were used for transactions but who knew that this would provide our modern world with the information of our ancient time. Some of the famous scripts that helped the archaeologists to reveal the truth and reality were – brahmi, kharosthi, kaithi etc.
Ancient Beliefs or the traditional belief systems that have evolved over centuries and are characterized by rituals, practices, and texts passed down through generations. Study of ancient belief(s) is important because it form the core of our identity and guide our perception of the world. India is home to the world’s oldest religions like – Hinduism , Buddhism , and Jainism. All three evolved from shared beliefs and traditions, such as reincarnation, karma, and liberation and achieving nirvana. These beliefs and traditions evolved in the Indus River Valley around 3500 BCE.
12. CONCLUSION –
The Great Indus Valley Civilization or The Harappan Civilization gave us our earliest cities. The Indus Valley Civilization was one of the largest and the Greatest Civilization in the World’s History. People of this Civilization had advanced planning [town and city] and sophisticated layouts , they even had extensive trade and an advanced structure of the way of life.
Thus , the study of The Harappan Civilization or The Indus Valley Civilization is not only important to archaeologists and historians but to a common man as well.
[ What you leave behind is not what is engraved in stone monuments, but what is woven into the lives of others. ]
BIBLIOGRAPHY –
1. Ncert book of class 12th , History
7. asi.nic.in
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